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  • Employee Disengagement: Understanding, Addressing, and Reigniting the Workplace Spark

    Employee Disengagement: Understanding, Addressing, and Reigniting the Workplace Spark

    A Multidisciplinary Exploration of Causes, Manifestations, and Solutions Through Psychological, Organizational, Metaphysical, and Spiritual Lenses

    Prepared by: Gerald A. Daquila, PhD. Candidate

    10–15 minutes

    ABSTRACT

    Employee disengagement, often termed “employee switch-off,” represents a critical challenge in modern workplaces, with profound implications for organizational productivity, employee well-being, and societal progress. This dissertation explores the multifaceted nature of employee disengagement, defined as a lack of emotional, cognitive, and physical investment in work, manifesting in behaviors such as apathy, reduced productivity, and absenteeism.

    Drawing on psychological, organizational, sociological, metaphysical, and spiritual perspectives, it examines the causes—ranging from poor leadership and lack of recognition to existential disconnection—and proposes actionable strategies for leaders and employees to mitigate disengagement and rekindle workplace enthusiasm.

    The role of artificial intelligence (AI) as a contributor to uncertainty and disengagement is critically assessed, highlighting both its challenges and opportunities. Through a synthesis of academic literature, empirical studies, and holistic frameworks, this work offers a comprehensive roadmap for fostering meaningful, engaged, and purpose-driven work environments.

    Table of Contents

    1. Introduction
    2. Defining Employee Disengagement
    3. Manifestations of Disengagement in the Workplace
    4. Causes of Employee Disengagement
    5. The Role of AI in Workplace Uncertainty
    6. Mitigation Strategies for Leaders
    7. Reigniting the Spark: Strategies for Employees
    8. A Multidisciplinary Lens: Psychological, Organizational, Metaphysical, and Spiritual Perspectives
    9. Conclusion
    10. Glossary
    11. Bibliography

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    1. Introduction

    In today’s fast-paced, technology-driven world, the workplace is a crucible of human potential and organizational success. Yet, a growing number of employees feel disconnected, uninspired, and disengaged—a phenomenon often described as “employee switch-off.” Gallup’s 2023 State of the Global Workplace Report estimates that disengaged employees cost organizations $8.8 trillion annually, roughly 9% of global GDP (Gallup, 2023). Beyond financial losses, disengagement erodes morale, stifles innovation, and dims the human spirit, leaving both employees and organizations searching for solutions.

    This dissertation delves into employee disengagement through a multidisciplinary lens, blending empirical research with psychological, organizational, metaphysical, and spiritual insights. It seeks to answer critical questions: What is employee disengagement, and how does it manifest? Why is it happening, and what are its root causes? How does the rise of AI contribute to workplace uncertainty? What can leaders and employees do to mitigate disengagement and reignite passion for work?

    By weaving together scholarly rigor and accessible language, this exploration aims to inspire actionable change while honoring the emotional and existential dimensions of work.

    2. Defining Employee Disengagement

    Employee disengagement refers to a state where workers are emotionally, cognitively, and physically detached from their roles and organizations. William Kahn (1990), a pioneer in engagement research, described disengagement as the “uncoupling of selves from work roles,” where individuals withdraw their personal investment, performing tasks mechanically without enthusiasm or commitment (Kahn, 1990). Disengagement exists on a spectrum, from passive “coasting” (doing the bare minimum) to active disengagement, where employees may undermine organizational goals through negativity or sabotage (Rastogi et al., 2018).

    Unlike mere dissatisfaction, disengagement reflects a deeper disconnection from the purpose, meaning, or value of work. It is not simply about disliking a job but about losing the motivation to invest energy in it. This distinction is critical, as satisfaction relates to an employee’s attitude, while engagement pertains to their motivational state (Wollard & Shuck, 2011). Disengagement can be temporary (situational) or chronic, influenced by individual, job-related, and organizational factors.

    3. Manifestations of Employee Disengagement

    Disengagement manifests in observable behaviors and attitudes that disrupt workplace dynamics. Common signs include:

    • Decreased Productivity: Disengaged employees produce lower-quality work, miss deadlines, or take longer to complete tasks (Hay Group, 2019). They may engage in “quiet quitting,” performing only the minimum required (Qualtrics, 2024).
    • Increased Absenteeism: Disengaged workers take more sick days—studies suggest over twice as many as engaged colleagues (HRZone, 2019). This reflects a lack of commitment to showing up consistently.
    • Negative Attitudes: Employees may express cynicism, complain frequently, or badmouth the organization, spreading negativity that affects team morale (FranklinCovey, 2024).
    • Limited Collaboration: Disengaged individuals often withdraw from team activities, avoid volunteering for projects, or display negative body language, such as eye-rolling or avoidance (FranklinCovey, 2024).
    • Higher Turnover: Disengagement is a precursor to voluntary attrition, as employees seek roles elsewhere that offer greater meaning or fulfillment (ActivTrak, 2024).

    These manifestations create a ripple effect, lowering team performance, customer satisfaction, and organizational reputation. For example, disengaged employees in customer-facing roles may provide subpar service, leading to a 10% drop in customer satisfaction scores (C2Perform, 2024).

    4. Causes of Employee Disengagement

    Employee disengagement stems from a complex interplay of individual, job-related, and organizational factors. Using the Conservation of Resources (COR) theory, which posits that individuals strive to retain resources (e.g., time, energy, support) and disengage when resources are depleted, we can categorize causes into three clusters (Rastogi et al., 2018):

    Individual Characteristics

    • Burnout and Stress: Chronic overwork or personal stressors can drain emotional and physical resources, leading to disengagement (FranklinCovey, 2024).
    • Lack of Purpose: Employees who feel their work lacks meaning or alignment with personal values are more likely to disconnect (Gallup, 2023).
    • Poor Work-Life Balance: When work encroaches on personal time, employees may feel resentful, reducing their commitment (Qualtrics, 2024).

    Job Attributes

    • Monotonous Tasks: Repetitive or unchallenging roles can erode motivation (Worklytics, 2024).
    • Lack of Growth Opportunities: Without clear career paths, employees feel stagnant, prompting disengagement (Deskbird, 2023).
    • Role Ambiguity: Unclear expectations or responsibilities create confusion and frustration (SHRM, 2024).

    Organizational and Workplace Conditions

    • Poor Leadership: Ineffective communication, lack of empathy, or micromanagement from managers is a leading cause of disengagement. Research shows that poor manager-employee relationships drive disengagement more than any other factor (CustomInsight, 2024).
    • Lack of Recognition: Employees who feel unappreciated for their contributions lose motivation (Nectar, 2025).
    • Toxic Work Culture: Environments marked by conflict, lack of inclusivity, or psychological unsafety foster disengagement (Monitask, 2024).
    • Inadequate Resources: Insufficient tools, training, or support hinder performance, leading to frustration (Rastogi et al., 2018).

    5. The Role of AI in Workplace Uncertainty

    The rise of artificial intelligence (AI) introduces both opportunities and challenges to employee engagement. While AI can streamline tasks and enhance productivity, its rapid adoption contributes to uncertainty that fuels disengagement.

    AI as a Threat

    • Job Insecurity: Fear of automation replacing roles creates anxiety, particularly in repetitive or data-driven jobs. A 2023 study found that 30% of employees worry about AI-driven job displacement, lowering engagement (McKinsey, 2024).
    • Skill Obsolescence: Employees may feel their skills are becoming irrelevant, leading to disengagement if training is not provided (SHRM, 2024).
    • Dehumanization: Over-reliance on AI tools can reduce human interaction, eroding the sense of connection and purpose (Pincus, 2022).

    AI as an Opportunity

    • Task Automation: AI can relieve employees of mundane tasks, freeing time for creative and meaningful work (SHRM, 2024).
    • Personalized Engagement: AI-driven analytics can identify disengagement early, enabling targeted interventions, such as tailored recognition programs (Monitask, 2024).
    • Enhanced Decision-Making: AI tools can provide managers with insights to improve communication and resource allocation, addressing root causes of disengagement (SHRM, 2024).

    While AI contributes to uncertainty, its impact depends on how organizations implement it. Transparent communication about AI’s role, coupled with upskilling programs, can mitigate fears and enhance engagement.

    Glyph of Workplace Renewal

    Reigniting the spark of engagement, transforming disconnection into collective purpose and vitality.

    6. Mitigation Strategies for Leaders

    Leaders play a pivotal role in combating disengagement by fostering a culture of connection, purpose, and growth. Drawing on research and practical insights, the following strategies are recommended:

    1. Foster Psychological Safety: Create environments where employees feel safe to express ideas and concerns. William Kahn’s (1990) research emphasizes three pillars of engagement: meaningfulness, safety, and availability (Kahn, 1990). Regular check-ins and open communication channels build trust (Nectar, 2025).
    2. Recognize and Reward: Implement consistent recognition programs to celebrate contributions. Studies show that 81.9% of employees feel more engaged when recognized (Nectar, 2025).
    3. Provide Growth Opportunities: Offer clear career paths and training programs. Employees with development opportunities are 57% less likely to leave (C2Perform, 2024).
    4. Clarify Roles and Expectations: Transparent communication about goals and responsibilities reduces ambiguity and boosts engagement (SHRM, 2024).
    5. Promote Work-Life Balance: Flexible work arrangements, such as hybrid models, enhance engagement. Research shows employees working 1-3 days from home report 77% engagement compared to 60% for full-time office workers (Qualtrics, 2024).
    6. Leverage AI Thoughtfully: Use AI to identify disengagement trends and personalize employee experiences while ensuring human oversight to maintain connection (SHRM, 2024).

    7. Reigniting the Spark: Strategies for Employees

    Employees are not passive recipients of workplace conditions; they can actively reclaim their engagement. The following strategies draw on psychological and spiritual principles to help individuals rediscover their spark:

    1. Reflect on Purpose: Engage in self-reflection to identify personal values and align them with work tasks. Journaling or meditation can uncover sources of meaning (Pincus, 2022).
    2. Seek Feedback and Growth: Proactively request feedback from managers and pursue learning opportunities to enhance skills and purpose (Deskbird, 2023).
    3. Build Connections: Foster relationships with colleagues to create a sense of community. Social bonds enhance engagement and well-being (FranklinCovey, 2024).
    4. Practice Self-Care: Prioritize physical, mental, and emotional health through exercise, mindfulness, or hobbies to combat burnout (FranklinCovey, 2024).
    5. Explore Spiritual Practices: Engage in practices like gratitude journaling or mindfulness meditation to reconnect with a sense of purpose and transcendence (Pincus, 2022).

    8. A Multidisciplinary Lens: Psychological, Organizational, Metaphysical, and Spiritual Perspectives

    Employee disengagement is not merely a workplace issue but a human one, requiring a holistic approach. This section integrates multiple disciplines to deepen our understanding.

    Psychological Perspective

    From a psychological standpoint, disengagement often stems from unmet needs, as outlined in Maslow’s hierarchy and extended by Pincus (2022), who proposes a four-domain model of motivation: Self (intrapsychic), Material (work and play), Social (interpersonal), and Spiritual (transcendent principles). When needs in these domains—such as autonomy, achievement, or belonging—are unfulfilled, employees disengage. For example, lack of recognition undermines the need for esteem, while poor relationships hinder social needs (Pincus, 2022).

    Organizational Perspective

    Organizational research highlights the role of leadership and culture. Poor manager-employee relationships are the leading cause of disengagement, with 50% of disengaged employees citing manager issues (CustomInsight, 2024). Toxic cultures, characterized by lack of inclusivity or transparency, exacerbate disconnection (Monitask, 2024). Conversely, organizations that prioritize employee-centric policies, such as flexible work and recognition, see higher engagement (McKinsey, 2024).

    Metaphysical Perspective

    Metaphysically, disengagement can be viewed as a disconnection from one’s higher purpose or essence. Work, as an extension of human creativity, should align with an individual’s sense of being. When employees feel their work lacks meaning, they experience an existential void, leading to apathy (Pincus, 2022). Philosophical traditions, such as existentialism, suggest that meaning-making is a personal responsibility, requiring employees to find purpose even in mundane tasks.

    Spiritual Perspective

    Spiritually, work can be a path to transcendence, connecting individuals to something larger than themselves. Pincus (2022) argues that the spiritual domain of motivation involves aligning work with eternal principles, such as service or growth. Practices like mindfulness, gratitude, or service-oriented work can restore engagement by fostering a sense of connection to a higher purpose. For example, employees who view their work as contributing to societal good report higher engagement (Gallup, 2023).

    9. Conclusion

    Employee disengagement is a multifaceted challenge with profound implications for individuals and organizations. By understanding its manifestations—reduced productivity, absenteeism, and negativity—and its causes, such as poor leadership, lack of recognition, and AI-driven uncertainty, leaders and employees can take meaningful steps to address it.

    Leaders must foster psychological safety, recognition, and growth opportunities, while employees can reclaim their spark through reflection, connection, and self-care. A multidisciplinary approach, blending psychological, organizational, metaphysical, and spiritual insights, reveals that engagement is not just about work but about honoring the human spirit.

    By creating workplaces that nurture meaning, connection, and purpose, we can transform disengagement into a catalyst for growth and fulfillment.

    Crosslinks

    10. Glossary

    • Employee Disengagement: A state of emotional, cognitive, and physical detachment from work, characterized by apathy, minimal effort, or active disruption.
    • Quiet Quitting: Performing only the minimum required tasks without extra effort or enthusiasm.
    • Psychological Safety: A workplace environment where employees feel safe to express ideas and concerns without fear of retribution.
    • Conservation of Resources (COR) Theory: A framework suggesting that individuals disengage when resources (e.g., time, energy, support) are depleted.
    • Burnout: A state of emotional, physical, and mental exhaustion caused by prolonged stress.
    • Employee Engagement: The emotional commitment and enthusiasm an employee has toward their work and organization.

    11. Bibliography

    Gallup. (2023). State of the Global Workplace: 2023 Report. Gallup.

    Hay Group. (2019). The impact of employee disengagement. HRZone.

    Kahn, W. A. (1990). Psychological conditions of personal engagement and disengagement at work. Academy of Management Journal, 33(4), 692-724.

    McKinsey & Company. (2024). How to identify employee disengagement. McKinsey.

    Monitask. (2024). Employee disengagement. Monitask.

    Nectar. (2025). How to motivate disengaged employees: 8 strategies to reenergize your team. NectarHR.

    Pincus, J. D. (2022). Employee engagement as human motivation: Implications for theory, methods, and practice. PMC.

    Qualtrics. (2024). Disengaged employees: Signs, cost & how to motivate them. Qualtrics.

    Rastogi, A., Pati, S. P., Krishnan, T. N., & Krishnan, S. (2018). Causes, contingencies, and consequences of disengagement at work: An integrative literature review. Human Resource Development Review, 17(1), 62-94.

    SHRM. (2024). 7 strategies to address employee disengagement. SHRM.

    Wollard, K. K., & Shuck, B. (2011). Antecedents to employee engagement: A structured review of the literature. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 13(4), 429-446.

    Worklytics. (2024). What is employee disengagement? Worklytics.

    Attribution

    With fidelity to the Oversoul, may this work serve as bridge, remembrance, and seed for the planetary dawn.

    Ⓒ 2025–2026 Gerald Alba Daquila
    Flameholder of SHEYALOTH · Keeper of the Living Codices
    All rights reserved.

    This material originates within the field of the Living Codex and is stewarded under Oversoul Appointment. It may be shared only in its complete and unaltered form, with all glyphs, seals, and attribution preserved.

    This work is offered for personal reflection and sovereign discernment. It does not constitute a required belief system, formal doctrine, or institutional program.

    Digital Edition Release: 2026
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  • Protected: The Conscious Worldview: Shaping Human Flourishing in a Post-Scarcity Future

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  • Protected: The Essence of Servant Leadership: Cultivating Service-Oriented Leaders for a Better Society

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  • Cross-cultural leadership: Why it matters?


    By Gerald A. Daquila, Ph.D. (Candidate)
    The Chicago School of Professional Psychology

    “Culture is more often a source of conflict than of synergy. Cultural differences are a nuisance at best and often a disaster.”
    — Prof. Geert Hofstede, Emeritus Professor, Maastricht University

    A leader’s cross-cultural leadership is rising in importance in a shrinking global economy. Leadership is about influence. A leader is as effective only as he’s able to convince those whom he leads. It is essentially ‘selling’ the leader’s point of view from the perspective of the receiver/follower (Cialdini, 1984), while at the same time, being conscious that the leader is not undermining the follower’s integrity (Forward, 1997).

    Navigating through this terrain requires that the leader be self-aware (Goleman, 1998), and considerate of the other person’s worldview, cosmology or Weltanschauung. Conflict arises because in a multicultural society, multiple worldviews are competing with each other, none of which is necessarily better than the other. As a leader, acute awareness that a person’s cosmology is different from yours is key to getting the team behind your idea.

    Worldview. Every person has a concept of himself in relation to the world (Freud, 1936). It is this self-concept that enables him to make sense of all life experiences, people, and events. To a person, this worldview makes absolute sense. “Happiness or joy,” says Nathaniel Branden, “is the emotional state that proceeds from the achievement of one’s values. Suffering is the emotional state that proceeds from a negation or destruction of one’s values” (Branden, 1969).

    When another person presents a cosmology that’s different from one’s own, it can be unsettling and will be perceived as a threat to one’s fragile ego. Our reflexive response is to create barriers to protect this worldview; hence, people find it difficult to change. Anna Freud calls this our built-in ‘defense mechanisms’ (Freud, 1936). A leader’s first challenge, therefore, is to bring about a common understanding of the situation, knowing that the people around him see through the situation the same way as he does. A leader who is unaware of the subtle differences in culture, demographics, and other dimensions of diversity will be unable to lead others, will face resistance or outright conflict.

    Self-awareness. Cross-cultural awareness starts with self-awareness. How one person’s cultural lenses shaped one’s view of the world—early experiences within the family structure, school, church and work; including interactions within the immediate community, and the broader geographic area sharing a common language or sub-culture. This ‘map’ of the external world develops during the lifetime of the individual and becomes that person’s ‘frame of reference’ with the outside world. The key to effective leadership in a multi-cultural environment, therefore, is having a keen understanding of one’s viewpoint, and being aware that this viewpoint may not necessarily be shared by those with whom you’re leading.

    How cultures differ. Geert Hofstede, a Dutch social psychologist and anthropologist developed the cultural dimension theory to understand how individuals differ. According to Hofstede, a person’s cosmology is influenced by the following six dimensions: (1) power distance index, (2) individualism vs. collectivism, (3) uncertainty avoidance index, (4) masculinity vs. femininity, (5) long-term vs. short-term orientation, and (6) indulgence vs. restraint (Hofstede, 2001).

    Power distance is the degree of acceptance of power imbalance that exist in any group. It refers to one’s attitude on how those power differences are distributed amongst the ‘haves’ and ‘have-nots’ to maintain social harmony. For example, in cultures which rated high in power distance, such as most Asian countries, team members expect their leaders to be paternalistic and authoritarian. In contrast, the US where power distance is low, team members expect their leaders to treat them as equals.

    Individualism versus collectivism is the cultural leaning to form alliances or keep one’s autonomy. Individualist societies, such as descendants of the Anglo-Saxons (e.g., UK, US, Canada) tend to value independence, and would seek status and recognition for their efforts. Collectivist societies, on the other hand, such as East Asians, Middle Eastern, and some Latin American countries, prefer to identify themselves with their group or ethnic background. They are uncomfortable being recognized for their individual contributions and would prefer to share this reward with their groups.

    Uncertainty avoidance. Countries that rated high on uncertainty avoidance, such as Germany and Japan prefer things to be predictable. In work settings, Germans won’t settle for anything less than a detailed plan of action. They tend to be conscientious, good project planners and strategists. The US, which has low uncertainty avoidance, in contrast, would be risk-lovers and innovators. It’s no accident that the US remains to be one of the most technologically innovative economies in the world, ranking 6th in patents per capita. Sweden, another low uncertainty avoidance country, ranked highest in innovation (Badenhausen, 2011).

    Masculinity versus femininity refers to contrasting qualities of assertiveness and nurturing. High masculinity countries such as Japan, Germany, Hungary, Austria and Switzerland, tend to prefer authoritarian or directive styles of leadership, whereas the Nordic countries of Norway and Sweden, scoring low on masculinity, tend to be more egalitarian and democratic in their leadership styles.

    The long- or short-term orientation refers to a person’s view of time. In China, as well as most Asian countries, people view time as circular rather than linear. Their long-term time horizons span generations, in contrast to the West where the preference is for the here and now. This is most apparent in the way one conducts business. A westerner, who is short-term oriented, would find the long winded introductions by Asians, Middle Eastern and some Latin American cultures a waste of one’s time.

    Finally, restraint or indulgent behavior preferences refer to hedonistic desires and how those are manifested. Western societies tend to be more indulgent in that respect, whereas most Asian and Middle Eastern countries prefer to hide or control these impulses. For example, public displays of affection are frowned upon in Asia and Middle East, but perfectly acceptable in Anglo-Saxon countries.

    Inter-generational diversity. We live at a time when there are four generations working for organizations: (1) the Silent Generation, born between 1925-1942; (2) Baby Boomers, born between 1943-1964; (3) Gen X, from 1965-1978 (Conger, 1998); and (4) Gen Y, those born between 1979-1994 (Hewlett, Sherbin, & Sumberg, 2009). Because the shaping events in these generations’ lives all differ, all four cohorts have different ways of ‘seeing’ their world, and they all make sense to them. Unless the leader is adroit enough to know these differences, this inter-generational diversity is yet another dimension that needs masterful handling.

    Pervasiveness of teams. Teams are becoming increasingly the organizing unit in organizations today. Team building and team facilitation skills are requisite skills that a 21st century leader needs to master. It is the ability to facilitate a team’s process from forming, storming, norming and performing (Tuckman, 1965). A team is as effective only as its weakest member. One of the unwritten job descriptions of future leaders is the ability to ‘coach’ members in the team, to help each member discover his/her potential. Every problem encountered is a teaching moment, and it takes an intuitive leader to capitalize on these moments to bring about lessons on team core values, and group dynamics.

    Change management. Once a common ground has been carved between the leader and the led, the leader’s next task is being able to lead the group to the higher ground, a task naturally well-suited for a transformational type of leader. This requires not only change management skills, but also, large doses of emotional intelligence (EQ) and cultural intelligence, CQ (Earley & Ang, 2003).

    Appreciative Inquiry (AI) is a wide scale change management technique first developed by David Cooperrider at Case Western Reserve University’s Weatherhead School of Management (Cooperrider, 2007). Appreciative Inquiry uses a ‘strengths-based’ approach to introduce change and highlights the positive aspects of peak performance. By focusing on these positive qualities, members are able to generate their own energy, which then feeds into a self-reinforcing virtuous cycle. The method has commonalities with other management theories such as Positive Psychology (Seligman, 1991), and Neuro-Linguistic-Programming, NLP (Grinder, & Bandier 1979).

    Canadian experience. Canada may perhaps provide us with a working model of how multiculturalism works in the real world. The country’s culture is influenced by its vast landscape covering six time zones (Cole & Berengut, 2009). Historically, there are three distinct cultures that overlap: First Nations, French, and Anglo-Saxon.

    Amidst this vast land mass, pockets of communities grew out of thirteen provinces/territories. In between these communities lay flatlands and towering mountain ranges that provide natural barriers. The Canadian Pacific Rail and Trans Canada Highway connect the east and west coasts, facilitating both tourism and trade. In addition to the main cultures, there has been a growing number of Chinese, East Indian and Southeast Asian immigrants, which together comprise 9% of the 34 million population (Statistics Canada, 2011).

    With this diversity, one would surmise that Canada is a hotspot for conflict, but it is not the case (Cole, & Berengut, 2009). According to Bass who studied cross-cultural leadership across many countries, “an ideal leadership style includes elements of transformational leaders” (Bass, 1997). This style includes an ‘inspirational’ motivation, idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, and consideration for individual circumstances.

    This pragmatic, contingent leadership style, displayed through a unique combination of skills that accommodate individual autonomy and collective responsibility, socialized power, and transformational, rather than transactional or charismatic leadership style, makes the Canadian model in a league of its own.

    Canadian leaders, according to Olijnyk & Gagne (2006), are a hot commodity because they embody the ‘transformational’ leaders’ characteristics of inclusion, process skills, negotiation and consensus building (Henein & Morissette, 2007). David Suzuki, a retired Canadian academic, science broadcaster and environmental champion, once said: “I believe in the power of reason to alter human behavior.”

    Finally, given the various dimensions of culture and inter-generational differences, leadership success will depend increasingly on managing this diversity, of finding the balance between competing worldviews within a team structure. Successful leaders in the future will have transformational qualities of visionary, inclusive style of management; ability to balance the individual as well as the collective aspirations; the intellectual gravitas and strength of character. Contemporary writer, Malcolm Gladwell, summed this well: “Innovation—the heart of the knowledge economy—is fundamentally social.”

    References.

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    Bass, B. M. (1997). Does the transactional-transformational leadership paradigm transcend organizational and national boundaries? American Psychologist, 52(2), 130–139.

    Branden, Nathaniel (1969). The Psychology of Self-Esteem.

    Cialdini, Robert (1984). Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion.

    Cole, Nina D., & Berengut, Rhona G. (2009). Cultural mythology and global leadership in Canada. Cultural Mythology and Global Leadership. Edited by Kessler, Eric H. & Wong-MingJi, Diana J., I (2), 49-64. Cheltenham, UK; Northampton, MA, USA, Edward Elgar.

    Conger, Jay A. (1998). How ‘Gen X’ Managers Manage. Retrieved from: http://www.strategy-business.com

    Cooperrider, David L. (2007). Business as an agent of world benefit: Awe is what moves us forward. Retrieved from http://appreciativeinquiry.case.edu/

    Earley, Christopher, & Ang Soon (2003). Cultural Intelligence: Individual Interactions across Cultures. Stanford University.

    Forward, Susan (1997). Emotional Blackmail: When the People in Your Life Use Fear, Obligation, and Guilt to Manipulate You.

    Freud, Anna (1936). The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense.

    Goleman, Daniel (1998). Working with Emotional Intelligence.

    Grinder, John, & Bandler, Richard (1979). Frogs into Princes: Neuro Linguistic Programming. Moab, UT: Real People Press. ISBN 0-911226-19-2.

    Henein, A. & Morissette, F. (2007). Made in Canada Leadership: Wisdom from the

    Nation’s Best and Brightest on the Art and Practice of Leadership. Toronto: Jossey-Bass.

    Hewlett, Sylvia Ann; Sherbin, Laura; and Sumberg, Karen (2009). How Gen Y and Boomers Will Reshape Your Agenda. Harvard Business School Publishing Corporation.

    Hofstede, Geert (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. ISBN 9780803973237.

    Olijnyk, Z. & Gagne, C. (2006). Taking on the world. Canadian Business, 20 November–3 December, 42.

    Seligman, Martin E. P. (1991). Learned Optimism: How to Change Your Mind and Your Life. New York: Knopf. ISBN 0-671-01911-2 (Paperback reprint edition, Penguin Books, 1998; reissue edition, Free Press, 1998)

    Statistics Canada (2011). Retrieved www.statcan.gc.ca

    Tuckman, Bruce (1965). Developmental sequence in small groups. Psychological Bulletin 63(6), 389-399. doi: 10.1037/h0022100.